Examples of APA Style

Several websites offer guidance in developing APA source lists and in citing sources in-text.  Among them are:

For guidance in MLA Citation Style

Sample in-text documentation, personal communications

These examples were designed according to the Fifth Edition of the APA Publication Manual.  Format changes introduced in the Fifth Edition include the use of the hanging indentations in the reference list and the use of italics (rather than underlining) for titles of larger works. 

We have attempted to reflect these Fifth Edition changes on our website.  You should also visit APA's official website for further descriptions of these changes.

Journal formats:

Abram, S., & Luther, J. (2004). Born with the chip: The next generation will profoundly impact both library service and the culture within the profession. Library Journal, 129(8), 34-37.

Agosto, D. E. (2002a). Bounded rationality and satisficing in young people's web-based decision making. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(1), 16-27.

Agosto, D. E. (2002b). A model of young people's decision-making in using the Web. Library & Information Science Research, 24 (2002), 311-341.

Bates, J. A. (2004). Use of narrative interviewing in everyday information behavior research. Library & Information Science Research, 26(1), 15-28.

Bates, M. J. (1989). The design of browsing and berrypicking techniques for the online search interface. Online Review, 13(5), 407-431.

Bilal, D. (2002a). Children's use of the Yahooligans! Web search engine. II. Cognitive and physical behaviors on research tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(2), 118-136.

Bilal, D. (2002b). Children's use of the Yahooligans! Web search engine. III. Cognitive and physical behaviors on fully self-generated search tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(13), 1170-1183.

Bilal, D. & Kirby, J. (2002). Differences and similarities in information seeking children and adults as Web users. Information Processing and Management, 38(5), 649-670.

Borgman, C. L., Hirsh, S. G., Walter, V. A., & Gallagher, A. L. (1995). Children's searching behavior on browsing and keyword online catalogs: The Science Library Catalog project. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 46(9), 663-684.

Branch, J. (2000). Investigating the information-seeking processes of adolescents: The value of using think alouds and think afters. Library & Information Science Research, 22(4), 371-392.

Branch, J. (2001). Junior high students and think alouds: Generating information-seeking process data using concurrent verbal protocols. Library & Information Science Research, 23(2), 107-122.

Journal article with multiple authors:

Levin, D., Arafeh, S., Lenhart, A., & Rainie, L. (2002). The digital disconnect: The widening gap between internet-savvy students and their schools. Pew Internet & American Life Project   Retrieved Sept. 30, 2004, from http://207.21.232.103/PPF/r/67/report_display.asp

From a journal article with more than six authors:

Fidel, R., Davies, R. K., Douglass, M. H., Holder, J. K., Hopkins, C. J., Kushner, E. J., et al. (1999). A visit to the information mall: Web searching behavior of high school students. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(1), 24-37.

From an electronic source:

Belkin, N. J. (2003). Interface techniques for making searching for information more effective.  Retrieved October 4, 2004 from http://home.earthlink.net/~searchworkshop/docs/belkin-final.pdf

De Rosa, C., Dempsey, L., & Wilson, A. (2003). 2003 OCLC Environmental Scan: Pattern recognition. Retrieved October 1, 2004 from http://www.oclc.org/membership/escan/introduction/default.htm

Eisenberg, Michael & Berkowitz, B. The Big6. (n.d.). Retrieved October 1, 2004, from

http://www.big6.com/

 

Gross, M. (2001). Imposed information seeking in public libraries and school library media centers: A common behaviour? Information Research, 6(2).

Record no. 100.  Retrieved September 20, 2004 from http://informationr.net/ir/8-2/paper100.html

 

Kalbach, J. (2003). "I'm feeling lucky": The role of emotions in seeking information on the Web. Retrieved September 29, 2004 from http://home.earthlink.net/~searchworkshop/docs/JKalbach_Emotions-InformationSeeking-Web_short21.pdf

 

Prensky, M. (1998). Twich speed: Keeping up with young workers. Retrieved on October 15, 2004 from http://www.twitchspeed.com/site/article.html

 

From a book:

 

Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Jonassen, D. H., & Grabowski, B. (1993). Individual differences and instruction. New York: Allen & Bacon.

Marchionini, G. (1995). Cambridge series on human-computer interaction: Information seeking in electronic environments. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Tapscott, D. (1997). Growing up digital: The rise of the net generation. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Article in a book:

 

Hirsh, S. G. (2004). Domain knowledge and children's search behavior. In M. K. Chelton & C. Cool (Eds.), Youth information-seeking behavior (pp. 241-270). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.

 

Dissertation

Mancall, J. C. (1979). Resources used by high school students in preparing independent study projects: A bibliometric approach. (Doctoral dissertation, Drexel University, 1979) ProQuest Digital Dissertations, AAT 7905069.

McGregor, J. H. (1993). Cognitive processes and the use of information: A qualitative study of higher order thinking skills used in the research process by students in a gifted program., (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1993). ProQuest Digital Dissertations, AAT 9332310.

Sample in-text documentation:

Bilal and Kirby (2001) found, through their exit interviews, that middle school students were not emotionally equipped to recover from “breakdowns” they faced searching Yahooligans! and refocus on their tasks. Fidel et al. (1999) points to similar breakdowns in high school students, whose confusion and frustration occurred when they were unable to find information in what they considered a reasonable time. Students are quick to abandon their seemingly unsuccessful searches and change the assignment if they cannot find the information they need. Students are satisfied with their searches and results but are impatient with slow response, long URLs, and the number of dead links.

Affective Issues Beyond Web Interactions

Students’ frustration extends beyond their interactions on the Web.  Levin et al. (2002) document students’ frustration with their teachers’ limited knowledge of the Web and their inability to create assignments that exploit its potential. Students felt extremely positive about the Web as a resource, but not nearly so positive about libraries and library professionals. "The Internet is basically, like, your local library times a thousand. [The material is] instantly available wherever there's a computer” (p. 7).  One student interviewed described her preference of the Web to a reference librarian:

[The Internet] made looking for these poems a whole lot easier than having to go up to some strange librarian who was enjoying her

Diet Coke and would do just about anything to get these people out of the library to go on her break. The Internet is like having a

virtual librarian minus the bad attitude and breath. (p.8)

The Digital Disconnect (Levin et al., 2002) tells us that students use the Internet for a variety of academic purposes as a: virtual textbook and reference library; tutor and study shortcut; study group; guidance counselor; and as their lockers, backpacks, and notebooks. Their positive reactions are, however, tempered by a series of frustrations. Students expressed irritation about the limitations and filtering they encounter at school and are angered when they discover material they use for a school project might later turn out to be wrong. Interestingly, they appeared to feel no personal responsibility for learning to evaluate resources on their own.  One student expressed this lack of culpability, “We need to be protected from those embarrassing situations" (p. 9). 

Fidel et al. (1999) documents a similar lack of motivation in the area of evaluating sources. Researchers note students’ desire for a “central authority” to evaluate pages before they were posted.  Few students read beyond the first screen to discern a site’s value. The researchers conclude that is a site is to be popular, or even if it is to be used, its first screen must include as much pertinent information and visual appeal as possible.

Many of the students interviewed view their education as an us versus them game, with the Web offering strategies for getting by with the least possible work.  The Digital Disconnect (Levin et al., 2002) points to a kind of slacker culture, where the path of least resistance reigns. Students are apparently proud to admit they use the Internet as a way to “complete their schoolwork as quickly and painlessly as possible, with minimal effort and minimal engagement” (p. 9).  Students use the Web to seek workbook and textbook answers and to find essays that “they didn’t actually plagiarize” (p. 10).  Shenton and Dixon’s (2004a) qualitative study finds among the recurring aspects of user behavior are “attempts by youngsters to simplify the task of information seeking and reduce the effort expended” (p. 177). The researchers describe the mindset of the student researchers as seeking sufficient information to meet the information need. Students seldom consulted more than a few sources, desired to take short cuts, felt little need to corroborate the accuracy of the information they retrieved, and cut and pasted whenever possible. Students’ need to simplify is seriously threatened when they are faced with the info-glut of long result lists and a multitude of resource choices, note Dixon and Shenton, who point to student frustration with information scatter—the need to gather information from more than one source.

Personal Communications

Personal communications are letters, email, discussion group archives, personal interviews, telephone and in-person conversations. Because they are not "recoverable data," you should not include them in your reference list. You should include them in text.

In biology lab, Chandler Coleman shared the results of his experiment regarding the use of fruit flies in studying alcohol tolerance (personal communication, November 18, 2005). 

 

New research suggests fruit flies may be used to examine various forms of tolerance to addictive substances (C. Coleman and M. Zeman, personal communication, November 19, 2004). 

 

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